POPE: Reconstruction of the Great Barrington Plant

NOTES ON THE RECONSTRUCTION OF A SMALL

CENTRAL STATION PLANT.

BY FRANKLIN L. POPE.

The financial condition of the smaller central station electric lighting plants throughout the country is at the present time by no means satisfactory, and in too many instances cannot even be truthfully said to be encouraging. A survey of the field shows that very few such plants located in towns having less than 10,000 inhabitants are earning more money than is necessary to meet their operating expenses and to provide for indispensable current repairs. In the state of Massachusetts, in which the operations of all electric lighting companies are by law made a matter of public record, it appears from the latest reports that the aggregate liabilities of the fifty-seven companies operating in that state, including stocks, bonds, and floating indebtedness, amounted on June 30, 1894, in round numbers to $14,000,000, nearly all of which stands charged to construction account. The net earnings-for the preceding year were $1,000,000, or about 7.1 per cent, on the total investment: a sum obviously quite insufficient to provide for depreciation and at the same time pay a fair dividend on the capital which has gone into the business. But if half-a-dozen of the larger plants, in cities like Boston, Lowell, Worcester, Springfield, Lynn and Fall River were excluded from the list, the showing for the smaller plants would be even far worse than it now appears.

Many of these small plants were started at an earlier day than could have been justified by any reasonable estimate of the business then in sight, and now find themselves hampered by inconvenient buildings, and with unsuitable machinery bought at high prices, and encumbered with defective business methods which experience has shown to be wholly inconsistent with the dictates of good judgment.

With the owners of many of these plants, it has become a very serious question whether the easiest way out of the dilemma which confronts them, may not be to relegate the entire plant to the junk-shop and the scrap-pile, and commence over again with new buildings, modern machinery and improved methods of administration. When the necessary capital is readily forthcoming, there can be no doubt that this would often be the wisest course of procedure, but for obvious reasons, it is one which is not always, nor even usually practicable. The alternative is to remodel the existing plant, bringing it as nearly as may be into accordance with the best modern practice, and utilizing so far as possible, the old material; a course which at least has the merit of avoiding an undue expansion of the construction account, in most cases already sufficiently burdensome.

Having been called upon during the past year to advise the owners of a plant of the character above referred to, in reference to certain changes which had been suggested as desirable, and having afterwards been employed in a professional capacity to design the work and superintend its execution, I have thought that some account of what we undertook to do and how we did it, might not be without interest to the members of the INSTITUTE.

The Great Barrington (Mass.) Electric Light Company was organized and commenced business in 1888. The population of the district intended to be served was about 3,000, and most of the expected consumers were located within 2,000 feet of the point decided upon for the station. This was built of wood in the most inexpensive manner possible, and was placed alongside the railroad for convenience in receiving coal, although at the same time the danger from fire was materially increased. The original outfit was an Edison 3-wire, equipped with a pair of 250-light 110-volt dynamos, and the company commenced business with 281 lights on contract at $10 per year each; wiring free. The center of distribution was 1800 feet from the station, necessitating over a ton of copper in the feeders alone. Generally speaking, the plant was well laid out, and well built as things went in those days. The two dynamos were belted to a single 80 H. P. Armington and Sims engine. The original cost of the plant was about $16,000. The following year a Schuyler arc-plant for street-lighting was added, carrying 35 arcs, nominally of 1,500 C. P., which was run from the same engine and boiler. In 1890, the plant was considerably enlarged by the addition of a second. arc machine, a Westinghouse 500-light alternator, and a second engine and boiler of the same capacity as the first. An 80 K. w. Westinghouse dynamo of more modern type was afterwards substituted for the original one.

Upon examining the plant last year, I found the Edison machines carrying on Saturday evenings a maximum load of some 450 lights, while three evenings in the week (with the stores closed) it fell to perhaps half that amount. The two Schuyler machines, with an aggregate capacity of 55 to 60 lights were carrying about 38 to 40, or an equivalent of that amount, while the Westinghouse machine was seldom as much as half-loaded, carrying a maximum of possibly 500 lights during three or four months of the summer season, and not much more than one-fourth that amount the remainder of the year. Necessarily, with so many dynamos of different types, and with such a variable, yet small average output, the consumption of coal was excessive as compared with the light delivered and paid for.

The street lines, according to the usual practice, were of No. 6 B. & S. weather-proof wire; the poles were of cedar, of good size and fitted with pine or spruce cross-arms, with common green glass insulators set upon wooden pins. In consequence of a silly prejudice, which had been fomented amongst the citizens by interested parties against permitting poles to be set in the streets, the wires, in a very great number of instances, had been attached, by cross-arms or brackets, to the trunks of the immense elm trees with which the streets of the town were shaded; a practice which occasioned an enormous loss of current every wet night as well as much irregularity in the performance of the lights. The effect on the trees was by no means -salutary, while the appearance was as much worse than that of poles in the streets as could possibly be imagined.

The village of Great Barrington extends for the most part along a single broad thoroughfare for a distance of nearly three miles, and the street-lighting circuits are consequently very straggling. The 1500 C. P. lamps, which were suspended at intervals of 800 to 1,000 feet, were actually of very little service in illuminating the densely shaded streets.

After a careful consideration of the situation, keeping in view the greatest possible reduction of present and future operating expenses, it was determined the wisest course to pursue would be to consolidate the whole service so that it could be supplied by one dynamo, in place of five underloaded ones. In pursuance of this plan it was decided to adopt the two-phase alternating system, at a maximum pressure of 2100 volts in the primaries, and 105 volts in the secondaries, with a frequency sufficiently low to permit the advantageous use of induction motors if required. It was furthermore decided to abandon the steam plant, and to make arrangements to utilize some one of the excellent water-powers which were available within practicable distances. Under ordinary circumstances, I should have hesitated to recommend the substitution of water-power for steam as the sole source of power for the operation of an electric lighting plant. Water-power is an invaluable auxiliary, and when conveniently available for use in conjunction with steam, may often be made to save a very large coal-bill in the course of a year. On the other hand, the excessive fluctuations to which it is liable—which are scarcely realized by those but casually acquainted with the subject— render it in most cases a very uncertain reliance for a business which is compelled to go on, perforce, every night in the year, and which cannot suspend operations, as an ordinary manufactory does, if worst comes to worst, for a week or two at a time. Even a water-privilege which, during ten months of the year, furnishes twice as much power as is needed, and even more, allay be expected to fall off, during one of the extraordinarily dry seasons which occur at intervals of from five to ten years, to one-third its usual amount. In such a ease, an electric plant solely dependent upon water-power would find itself in a most undesirable predicament.

In the present instance, the choice of a water-privilege finally reduced itself to two sites, one in the town itself, within half a mile of the center of consumption, and the other at Glendale village, seven miles distant, both situated on the Housatonic river. Time privilege first mentioned being already occupied by a woolen factory, only the surplus water was available, but this was known to be quite sufficient for the requirements of the electric company at least nine months in each year, leaving three months to be run by steam. It had the advantage of being close at hand, and was capable of being fitted up at a moderate cost. As to the Glendale privilege, it was necessary to be very sure that the lowest water of a dry summer would give all the, power required to run the plant without the aid of steam. Having invariably found the value of a water-power to be greatly exaggerated, not only in popular estimation, but in the opinion of its owners, the matter was investigated with much care. From the official state map of Massachusetts, it was ascertained that the area of the drainage basin of the Housatonic above the Glendale dam was 269 square miles. J. T. Fanning, a leading authority, from an extended examination of the recorded observations on the rainfall and flow of the New England rivers, reaches the conclusion that a water-shed of the area mentioned, may be estimated to yield the quantities of water given below:—

CUBIC FEET OF WATER PER SECOND PER SQUARE MILE.

Minimum (15 days of least summer flow) ...... 0.25

Mean (120 days, usually July to October inclusive)..... 0.90

Maximum (flood volume) ........... 80.00

It will be noticed that the flow in extreme dry weather is less than one-third of that which may ordinarily be depended upon through the remainder of the year.

The distribution of rainfall throughout the year should be studied. It is often materially modified by local geographical conditions. The diagram shows that the distribution on the head-waters of the Housatonic is quite different from the normal type of the northeastern region. The same may be true of other rivers.

While this investigation was going on, it was discovered that actual measurements of the volume of water in the Housatonic river had been made in 1878 by the engineers of the New York Department of Public Works, with reference to its utilization as a future source of water supply for that city. The minimum summer flow was found to be (as given in the engineer's report), 0.34 C. F. per second per square mile. It was also learned that measurements made on several different occasions at Birmingham, Conn, in very low stages of water, gave an average of 0.32 C. F. per second per square mile. It was therefore assumed that Mr. Fanning's estimates were at least on the safe side. The greater volume of water found by the actual measurements, is doubtless due to the fact that there are some 5 or 6 square miles of reservoirs, consisting of natural and artificial lakes, on the upper waters of the Housatonic, which are drawn upon by the numerous mills on the river as an extra supply during the season of drought.

Fig. 1.—Curve of Mean Annual Distribution of Rainfall. Full Line is Reduced Observations at Williamstown, Mass., 1816 to 1874. Dotted Line is Mean of All Observations in the Hudson and Champlain Valleys, and Northern and Western New York, Aggregate 564 Years. From Schott's Rainfall Tables, Pp. 199, 251. Washington, 1881.

A minimum flow of 0.25 per second per square mile would give at Glendale, 4035 C. F. per minute. Multiplying this by the weight of a c. F. of water (63.3 lbs.) gives 255,415 foot-pounds, which, divided by 33,000 gives 7.74 gross horse-power per foot of fall, or a total of 99.6 H. P. for the 13 feet fall at Glendale. The average efficiency of a good turbine may safely be taken at 75 per cent. which would give 67.9 as the available H. P. during the whole 24 hours, in time of lowest water. In electric lighting however, the great bulk of work is done within a period of about 4 hours (in summer time), and hence it is possible, in case there is sufficient area of pondage above the dam, to increase this capacity by storage at least four-fold, which would raise the limit of minimum available power during lighting hours, to 271.6 H.P.; an amount which was considered to be ample to meet all the probable requirements of the Great Barrington plant for many years to come.

While negotiations were still pending with, the owners of the Glendale privilege, and also the one in the village already referred to, overtures were received from a manufacturing company owning a third exceptionally desirable privilege, on the same stream, at an intermediate point considerably nearer than Glendale. This company had only recently completed a new dam, head-gates, raceways, etc., at a very considerable expense; and was willing to lease the complete establishment, including a new McCormick turbine of 325 H.P. and a two-phase Stanley generator of corresponding capacity, at a monthly rental based upon the actual output as measured in kilowatt-hours at the dynamo terminals, provided that a Certain minimum monthly consumption was guaranteed. With the same volume of water as at Glendale, the fall at this point was 20 feet, assuring at least 417 H. P. at lowest water, during lighting hours. All the hydraulic apparatus and appointments were of the best possible construction, and well-calculated to ensure absolute permanency of operation.

The minimum rental exacted was somewhat less than the amount of the coal-bill of the Great Barrington company for the preceding fiscal year, but while the immediate saving in operating expenses was not large, the acceptance of the proposition would place the company in a position to reduce its rates to consumers, for the reason that its output might be very largely increased without materially augmenting its operating expenses. A lease for a term of years was accordingly closed.

In laying out the plant it was determined to bring the main feeders directly to a distributing station in the village, to be used principally as a convenient headquarters for testing the circuits and controlling the street-lighting service. In laying out the transmission line, a surveyor was employed, and a preliminary line was run directly from the power-house to the distributing-station. The air-line distance was found to be 5.15 miles. With the assistance of the surveyor, the actual line was then staked out, going directly across country, and keeping as near as circumstances permitted to the transit line. About half the distance, the transit-line was found to so nearly coincide with existing highways, that the consent of the local authorities was obtained to set the poles along the highway location; the remainder of the route lay principally through uncultivated land of little value, so that a comparatively small expenditure was sufficient to secure a release from all claims for land damages. This enabled the line to be located with long stretches absolutely straight, avoiding all sharp angles; a very important consideration when heavy wires are used. The poles were of selected chestnut with natural butts usually set five feet in the ground at maximum intervals of 125 feet. The poles were ordinarily 25 feet long and 8 inches thick at the small end. Shorter poles were sometimes used on elevations and longer ones in depressions, in order to equalize the strain as much as possible. The insulators used were of the large double-bell white porcelain type (German government standard), and were imported by us from Hagen. The insulator of the top wire is set upon a malleable-iron stem 14 inches long screwed into time top of the pole which is tapered to 5 inches diameter, and protected from splitting by driving on a wrought-iron ring. The tapered part of the pole, as well as the top, was given a coating of mineral paint mixed as thick as it could be spread with a brush. The insulator of the second wire is carried on a malleable-iron goose-neck, screwed into a 5/8 inch hole bored in the side of the pole, in such position as to bring the wires about 16 inches apart. Another hole was bored on the opposite side of the pole, intended to take the goose-neck of the third wire at some future time, leaving the same interval between the second and third wires. The porcelain insulators are fixed to their iron supports by a packing of oakum placed between the screw-threads, which serves to prevent any danger of fracture by expansion or contraction. The line wire is laid in a groove formed in the top of the insulator, except upon the curves and angles, in which case it is tied at the side in a circumferential groove, as is usual in this country. The German method of tying is quite complex, and unnecessarily strong; in case of undue strain, if anything gives way it had best be time tie-wire. We therefore devised a simple tie which was easily and quickly applied, and which has so far served an admirable purpose. We were obliged to string the wires during very cold weather; sometimes as cold as 8 or 10 degrees below zero, and hence it was necessary to strain them very tight. A block and fall and a well-trained horse were used in pulling up, usually six or seven spans of one wire at a time. The hook of the block was always attached to the copper wire, whether bare or insulated, with a chain-knot made of 3/4 inch rope. The feeder-wires were of No. 3 B. & S. soft copper, covered with weather-proof "insulation" along the highway (as a concession to enlightened public opinion), but elsewhere bare. The lengths of wire were joined with McIntire twisted couplings; the unusual strain we had to put upon them occasionally pulled one apart, and this led us, out of abundant caution, to solder them, although this was done for mechanical rather than for electrical reasons. Only two feeder wires have as yet been strung, providing for a single-phase current from one side of the two-phase generator, but it is the intention to run a third feeder at an early day, which will enable two-phase, induction motors to be connected to the same distributing system.

A pair of telephone wires of No. 12 steel were strung below the feeder-wires, and these were supported upon small German porcelain insulators on iron goose-necks on opposite sides of the poles. These wires were transposed at intervals of about a mile, in order to eliminate the inductive effects of the alternating current in the feeders. The feeder-lines were carried under the railroad at an undergrade crossing by placing the insulators upon iron brackets leaded into the stone abutments. The plan of construction above described makes a strong, handsome and durable line, while the insulation of the circuit even in the worst of weather, is simply faultless. (1)

(1) I regret that I am unable to present any actual measurements of the insulation of the line of the Great Barrington company, no opportunity having occurred since the work was completed, of making tests under atmospheric conditions of minimum insulation. Several years ago, however, while engaged in telegraphic service, I made a series of nearly 100 separate tests in rainy and foggy weather, extending over a period of five years, of a set of 10 porcelain insulators of time same make and pattern in every particular as those now on the Great Barrington line, erected on a house-top in the city and therefore much exposed to smoke and dirt. These measurements gave a mean resistance of 28.3 megohms, and a minimum resistance of 19 megohms per insulator. On a metallic circuit therefore, the minimum insulation resistance at each pole would be 38 megohms. On the Great Barrington line of 28,260 feet there are 250 poles and other supports, and hence we may assume that the minimum resistance of the insulation of the circuit as a whole would be 152,000 ohms. The current loss by leakage is found by dividing the mean voltage by the insulation resistance; 2,200/152,000 = 0.014 ampere; an amount too small for serious consideration. The conductivity resistance of the feeder circuit measures 9.07 ohms at 0° Centigrade (32° Fahr.)

The system has been planned to deliver the current at the distributing station at a uniform pressure of 2,100 volts. Two distributing centers were fixed upon in the old Edison 3-wire network, and at each of these points a pair of large transformers, having a ratio of 20:1, were fixed upon a pole, with their respective primaries in series between a pair of branch feeders from the distributing system, and their secondaries were coupled in series in like manner with the neutral wire between them. None of the consumers on the old Edison system knew when the change had been made to the new service from anything they were able to notice in the behavior of the lights.

The next thing done was to reconstruct the street-lighting system. In place of the 36 arcs of 1500 nominal C. P. formerly in use we substituted 126 incandescent lamps of 50 volts and 32 C. P., placed in Iona fixtures projecting horizontally from the poles 14 feet above the ground. The lights, as a rule, were fixed upon every alternate pole, but in the business center, the street being broad, they were placed on each side at intervals of about 250 feet, and staggered, so as not to come opposite each other. A Shallenberger shunt cut-out was applied to each lamp. The usual number of lamps in each circuit was 42, although we have since placed, in some cases, as many as 47 in one series without reducing the brilliancy of illumination sufficiently to be noticeable by any one but an expert. One end of each street-lighting circuit is joined to a special feeder leading to the sub-station, where it is connected with the main feeder through a knife-switch. The other end of each lamp-circuit is connected to any conveniently located branch feeder of the regular commercial lighting service. Each lamp-circuit has, or will have, a fuse-block and cut-out enclosed in a weather-proof box at each end, where it joins the opposite feeders. These 32 C. P. lamps, when run at full candle-power, furnish a most satisfactory illumination and give the streets a very attractive appearance. So far as possible, each lamp was located with the aid of a transit and level, so as to get them in absolutely straight lines both vertically and horizontally, a precaution which adds materially to the decorative effect. It is admitted by all that the streets of the town are much more satisfactorily lighted by the incandescents than they formerly were by arc lamps, while the actual cost to the company is considerably less. The new lamps were cut in, one at a time, on the old arc wires, jumpers being temporarily placed across the terminals until everything was in readiness to discontinue the use of arc machines.

One of the most marked advantages of the series street-lighting system, especially when shunt cut-outs are used, is its great flexibility and convenience. For example, instead of placing from 40 to 45 50-volt lamps in one series, we may use 20 to 23 100-volt lamps, or if a smaller number be required, less than is necessary to make up a circuit, the deficit may be supplied by adding extra shunt-boxes in series at any convenient point in the circuit, until the pressure has been reduced to the required point. From time to time, as new lights are added, these spare shunt-boxes are one after another brought into use in connection with them. Sometimes, also, we temporarily install extra street-lights by connecting them in parallel to the secondary mains of the regular commercial service, ultimately transferring them to new series circuits.

It has been found to be desirable to use a lamp of rather low efficiency for the street-lighting service, as there is always danger of leakage and short-circuits from wet boughs of trees and other objects getting into contact with the wires, and thus diverting an abnormal current through some portion of a lamp circuit. In such case, a lamp of high efficiency is pretty certain to be burned out, or at least to have its career of usefulness materially abridged. In this plant, the average consumption of energy in the streetlights, including lamps, lines, shunts, and leakage is found to be about 1411 watts per lamp of 32 C. P.

Perhaps the most ticklish part of the whole undertaking was the changing over of time Westinghouse system, which was a 1050-volt primary and a 52-volt secondary, running at 16,500 alternations. In accordance with the new plan, it was of course necessary to double the pressure both in the primary and secondary circuits, and to substitute 104-volt for 52-volt lamps throughout. A preliminary test of one of the transformers demonstrated, that which perhaps might have been foreseen from theoretical considerations, viz.: that a dangerous quantity of heat was developed within a few hours when it was used to convert from 2,000 volts down to 100. In order to utilize, so far as possible, the old transformers, and at the same time avoid the above difficulty, various expedients were resorted to. Wherever a group of consumers was located in one neighborhood, a pair of large transformers was installed, with secondary mains extending from 500 to 600 feet in various directions; these transformers being of course placed in series with each other. Scattering consumers as far as practicable were united in pairs or small groups, and supplied by a pair of small transformers coupled in the same way. The Westinghouse meters, having been originally constructed for a frequency of 16,500 alternations, ran slow when the frequency was reduced to 8,000. The necessary coefficient for correction of the readings was easily ascertained by experiment, and as fast as possible the meters were fitted with new disks, supplied by the Westinghouse company at a trilling expense, adapted to the lesser frequency.

Of course it will be understood that the reason for resorting to these various shifts and expedients, was merely that we might utilize the old apparatus as far as it could possibly be done, and also that we might carry on the work of reconstruction, for the most part, with the ordinary working force of the establishment.

The horizontal double turbine which is used to drive the two-phase generator has done such good work that it deserves a few words of commendation. The selection of the best among the many available types of turbines for electric work is a matter which merits far more consideration from a scientific standpoint than it generally receives. Water-wheels, like dynamos and motors, are sometimes sold on commission by agents, and it not infrequently happens that the salesman who makes the largest "claims," especially if he sells his goods the cheapest, carries away the contract. It needs to be said, however, that there is a far greater difference than is often suspected, in the work that different types of wheels will do with a given, and especially a limited amount of water. There are, furthermore, a great many types of wheels in the market, which although as efficient as could be asked for with a full head of water, are very far from being so when the volume of water is reduced, even by a comparatively small percentage. It is but just to say that it is seldom that a, turbine makes so favorable a showing, not only in this but in other respects, as the one provided by the company from which we lease our power. The following figures are selected from a much larger number obtained by actual measurement of its performance, in the testing-flume of the Holyoke Water-power Company.

These results are worthy of particular note, for the reason that they show a very high percentage of efficiency maintained through a wide range of variation in the quantity of water passing through the wheel; a most valuable characteristic for electric work. When the quantity of water used was diminished from 81.75 to 42.55 cubic feet per second, the percentage of efficiency fell only from 80.99 to 63.9, and what is even more remarkable, it was found that the efficiency remained well above 80 per cent. over a range of variation of discharge from 83.22 to 70 cubic feet per second, or 15.9 per cent. More than one type of turbine which enjoys a high reputation and extensive sale among power-users, will not reach 65 or even 60 per cent. efficiency at "three-quarters gate," while the 33" wheel above referred to has been found to give by actual test no less than 78 per cent. under similar conditions.

Fig. 2. — Efficiency Test of Jolly-Mccormick Turbine.

The turbine carries upon its shaft a driving-pulley 100 inches in diameter, weighing 11,000 lbs. which serves as a balance-wheel. It is also provided with a Replogle electric governor operated by three cells of gravity battery, which has never failed to do its work quickly and certainly, even under trying conditions.

In carrying out this work, some things have been learned by experience which may be of use to others called upon to advise or to undertake the construction of similar works, and I will therefore venture to summarize some of my conclusions as follows:

1. In considering the advisability of operating an electric plant by water-power, do not on any account neglect to ascertain from authentic sources of information, just how much water can be depended upon during the low stage in au extra dry year, for this is the measure of its value for electric work except when used as an auxiliary to steam. The ordinary estimates of the commercial value of a war-power are only too apt to prove preposterous exaggerations.

2. If rights-of-way or releases of damages can be obtained without too much trouble and expense, it is better to build the feeder line as directly across country as may be, than to follow a highway. The saving in cost of construction will usually be more than enough to pay for the right-of-way, and on such a route there need be no interference from trees, while many inconvenient angles and much trouble in guying and bracing are avoided. Shorter and stouter poles may also be used; in itself a very important consideration.

3. In electric line construction it is preferable to dispense with cross-arms unless there are more than six wires. The best arrangement is to place one wire on a top-pin and the others alternately on the front and back of the pole, at a vertical distance apart of 12 inches. This construction not only costs less than properly braced cross-arms, but is much less conspicuous and therefore much less objectionable in a public street, is less interfered with by trees, and is far more durable. Much trouble is caused by the decay of cross-arms after they have been exposed a few years to the weather; they split at the ends so that the pins come out, and not infrequently break in two in the middle, thus fouling the wires.

4. In medium-sized towns and cities, especially in shaded streets, the incandescent lamp may be made to give a far better distribution of light for the same money than is possible with the half-arc" so extensively used, and is much less troublesome to maintain in good working order. My own experience leads me to think that the lamps ought not to be of less than 24 or more than 32 candle-power. Use lamps of low rather than high efficiency, but run them at full candle-power, or even a trifle above. Good street-lights, well arranged, and renewed sufficiently often, are the best possible advertisement for any electric company.

5. Use large transformers as far as practicable, placing-the consumers within 500 or 600 feet radius upon secondary mains. We have used both two-wire and three-wire mains. The latter plan is certainly to be recommended when the distance approximates or exceeds 500 feet, but for short distances, as for example when distributing within a single block at a pressure of 100 volts or more, it is a question whether the gain in cost of copper over the two-wire plan is of sufficient importance to offset the additional complexity.

6. It was found that raising the voltage in the residence district from 1,000 : 50 to 2,000 : 100 greatly improved the uniformity of distribution by lessening the potential drop without entailing any corresponding disadvantages. It would seem to be preferable, on every account, to use the higher pressure.

7. One of the most important minor points in the management of a plant is apt to be too much neglected; the maintenance of the insulation of the wires by promptly replacing all cracked and broken insulators, and by keeping the wires absolutely free from contact with uninsulated objects. The covered wires which lead into the hoods of the street-lamps need to be carefully looked after.

8. Number all the poles with yellow paint applied with a stencil on a black ground; and keep a record book of the position of each one and its distance by the line from the test-station.

9. In selecting a turbine-wheel, consult competent authorities as to the available fall and minimum quantity of water, and when making the purchase do not expect to get a thousand-dollar wheel for a hundred dollars. Pay a fair price and insist, not only that the wheel shall be well made in every way, but that it shall be tested by an expert before acceptance. If it does not give an average efficiency of 76 per cent. between half-gate and full-gate, it is not advisable to accept it, inasmuch as you can easily do better, as our own experience proves.

10. I think our experience shows that it is possible to largely increase the net earnings of an old plant without necessarily renewing it throughout, but plenty of time should be taken for consideration as well as for execution, in order to secure satisfactory results with a moderate expenditure.

DISCUSSION.

DR. EMERY:—Although we are waiting for something of general interest I do not think that this paper should be passed without a word or two. The subject of the reconstruction of non-paying electric plants along modern lines is becoming of increasing importance, and I have studied this paper with a great deal of interest. It is an example of a typical engineering paper. The various steps taken are enumerated, and the reasons for each step, and the author has gone somewhat outside of what may be strictly cad electrical engineering; taken up problems from the standpoint of a civil engineer and given reasons based on the same considerations as those used in that branch of engineering. The paper will repay careful perusal by all who may have similar problems to undertake. The basis assumed, viz., that the maximum power which can be relied upon depends upon the minimum rainfall and proportional stream flow, is the correct one and is only varied where there are large reservoirs so regulated as to store water during freshets, and supply it in times of drought. There is only one drawback in the discussion of the water question which has not been mentioned. The ice frequently causes trouble, in Northern climates particularly, and at a season of the year when light is most desirable, so that the length and location of the head races, together with all available data as to ice gorges in the river, should be well considered before making a change of this particular kind.

[An illustrated description of the Niagara Falls plant was then given by Dr. Coleman Sellers and Mr. Lewis B. Stillwell.]